マイチューターのライティング

┃TOEFL ライティング　Independent     Body (本論）

Body（本論）は、Introduction(序論）での主張（thesis statement）を裏付ける

エッセイの中心になるところです。

理由と具体例を挙げながら各段落ごとに主張の裏付けをすることから、

しばしば　”developmental paragraph”　とも呼ばれます。

Bodyは２～４つの段落からなり、1段落に１つずつ理由を展開していきます。

各段落では、段落ごとの主旨（topic sentence)を示し、根拠となる

詳細情報(Supporting detail)や具体例(example – 統計データ、

個人の経験、一般常識）を挙げていきます。

各段落のtopic sentenceは、直接thesis statementを裏付けていくことから、

support pointとも呼ばれます。

エッセイの Body (本論）を読んで以下の情報が入っているか確認してください。

☑　各パラグラフにThesis statementを裏付けるTopic Sentenceは書かれているか

☑　Topic Sentence の根拠となる詳細情報や具体例が含まれているか

☑　効果的な転換語が使われているか

☑　抽象から具体へと展開しているか

設問

Some people think that government should spend as much money as possible on developing space technology for the exploration of the moon and other planets. Others think that this money should be spent on solving the basic problems of society on Earth. Which view do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. 

●　Introduction

    Society is often divided on major issues involving government spending. One group believes that we should spend as much money as possible on space exploration, while another group thinks that we should spend this money on solving basic social problems on Earth. I believe there are stronger reasons for spending on space technology because this leads to knowledge that will benefit society on Earth.

Body 1

        Spending money on space technology can lead to better ways to produce food and clothing. Space travel requires special ways to preserve and store food for a long journey. Scientists also work on ways to grow vegetables and fruits in space so that astronauts can have fresh food. Scientists must develop new types of clothing made from new materials. Many of these new methods of food and clothing production also benefit people on Earth.

Body 2

     Space exploration has led to important developments in communications technology. One of the first government projects in space technology was for satellite communications. Today, this technology benefits everyone who uses satellite television or telephones.

Body 3

      The most important reason for spending money on space technology is that it promotes international cooperation. When the governments of several different countries work together on space projects, there is better communication between countries. The international space station is a good example of international cooperation that benefits everyone on Earth. Not only does it lead to scientific progress, but it also promotes international understanding.

Conclusion

     In conclusion, several developments in space technology have already helped society on Earth. If we spend money on space programs, we may discover even greater

knowledge that will improve our life and promote world peace. 

Bodyで役に立つ表現

●　順序立てて書く

First(ly),～ . Second(ly), ～. Third(ly),～. 「第1に、～。第2に、～。第3に、～。」

First of all / To begin with 「まず初めに」

Next / Also / In addition / Moreover / Furthermore 「次に、さらに、その上」

Finally / Last(ly) / In the end 「最後に」

●　理由を書く

because / since / as 「～なので」

The reason is that …　「その理由は・・・だからです。」

This is because ….「これは・・・だからです。」

●　例を挙げる

for example / for instance 「例えば」　　　　as an example 「一例をあげると」

such as ～　「～のような」　　　　　　　　in particular 「とりわけ、特に」

┃　TOEFL ライティング　Independent     Introduction（序論）

Introdcution（序論）とは、エッセイの書き出し段落です。

Introductionで最も重要な部分は、thesis statement （エッセイ全体の主旨）となります。

読み手が、thesis statementを読んで、エッセイのアウトラインが

分かるようにしなければいけません。

▮　次の設問とエッセイのIntroduction（序論）を読んでください。

設問

Some people think that government should spend as much money as possible on developing space technology for the exploration of the moon and other planets. Others think that this money should be spent on solving the basic problems of society on Earth. Which view do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. 

Introduction (序論）

Society is often divided on major issues involving government spending. One group believes that we should spend as much money as possible on space exploration, while another group thinks that we should spend this money on solving basic social problems on Earth. I believe there are stronger reasons for spending on space technology because this leads to knowledge that will benefit society on Earth.

①　第1段落は、設問のトピックになります。

Society is often divided on major issues involving government spending. 

②　　次の段落は、設問にある文を解答者の言葉で言い換えています。

One group believes that we should spend as much money as possible on space exploration, while another group thinks that we should spend this money on solving basic social problems on Earth. 

③　最後の段落は、設問に対する解答者の意見になります。　

こちらはThesis statementと呼ばれ、エッセイ全体の主旨（メイン・アイディア）となります。

これから展開するエッセイの本題でThesis statementを、

理由と具体例を挙げて説明していくとこになります。

I believe there are stronger reasons for spending on space technology because this leads to knowledge that will benefit society on Earth.

Introductionで役に立つ表現

●　賛成・反対を示す

I agree with ～  / I am in favor of ～  「私は～に賛成です。」

I disagree with ～  / I am against～ 「私は～に反対です。」

●　意味・好みを述べる

in my opinion / from my point of view 「私の考えでは」

I prefer ～ to …　「私は…よりも～を好みます。」

●　反対の立場に触れる

Some people ～ .  However, …. 「～という人もいます。しかしながら、…」

Although ～　,…  「～ですが、・・・」

|　TOEFL ライティング　Independent  ブレインストーミング

Prewriting　エッセイを書き始める前の準備

Prewritingとは、エッセイを書き出す前の準備です。　Prewritingに含まれるものは

こちらになります。

☑　質問を読んで解答（エッセイ）の構成を考える

☑　ブレインストーミングで浮かんだアイディアをメモ用紙に書き込む

☑　自分の意見とthesis（主題文）を決める

☑　エッセイのアウトライン（本論の箇条書き）

▮　ブレインストーミング (Brainstorming )

エッセイを書き始める前に、どのように内容を展開していくかを十分検討していないと、

書いているうちに論点がずれていくことがあります。　論点がずれることで、

内容に一貫性のないエッセイになってしまうので、スコアは低くなります。

エッセイを書く始める前に、３～4分でブレインストーミングをすることが大切です。

エッセイの構成に必要なことを短い間にできるだけメモに書き出すことを

ブレインストーミングと言います。

ブレインストーミングに書き出すのは、主に、本論（Body)で使う

意見、理由、例・詳細です。

thesis　(主題文）

Independent Taskでは、thesis(主題文）とは、トピックに対するあなたの意見になります。

例えば、thesisは以下のようになります。

state that you agree with a given statement; or

state that you disagree with a given statement; or

state which of two positions you hold on a given issue.

アウトライン(Outline)    エッセイの本論を短くまとめる

アウトラインとは、これから書き出すエッセイの設計図のようなものです。

ブレインストーミングで書き出した理由と例・詳細を段落ごとに箇条書きにします。

ここでは、正確な文は必要ありません。　短く要点だけを書き出します。

アウトラインを書き出す前に、先ほど説明したthesis（あなたの意見）

は決まっていることが前提です。

ブレインストーミングで書き出したアイディア から2～４つの理由と例・詳細を

選びエッセイの本論(Body)として適切な順番に書き出していきます

それでは、実際の質問を使って、ブレインストーミング、Thesis, アウトライン

を書き出してみます。

▮　質問

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Teachers are responsible for motivating students to learn. Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.

●　ブレインストーミング（Brainstorming） 

Disagree-Student is responsible, not teacher

– self-motivated

– S not motivated, T can’t help

– People naturally want to learn

– my teacher – grade 5

– work/whole life

– learning – no teacher

●　Thesis　（主題文）

Although many people believe it is the teacher’s responsibility to motivate students to learn, students will not learn much unless they are self-motivated. 

●　アウトライン　（本論の箇条書き）

– Natural love of learning

– Learning during whole life

– Develop self-motivation　　

|　TOEFL ライティング　Independent  文章構成

▮　　文章の構成　（Organization)とは

TOEFL ライティング　Independent Taskでは、

提示されたトピックに対し、自分の意見や考えをエッセイで表現

するテストです。

採点の重要なポイントは、文章（エッセイ）の構成力です。

 

文章の構成（Organization)とは、以下の３つです。

 

①   Introduction (序論）　
②   Body （本論）
③　Conclusion (結論）

 

ここではTOEFL ライティングIndependentにおける、

高得点を取るための構成について示してみます。

 

　①Introduction (序論）

Introduction とは、エッセイの書き出し段落です。

Introductionで最も重要な部分は、thesis statement （主文）となります。

読み手が、thesis statementを読んで、エッセイのアウトラインが

分かるようにしなければいけません。

 

先ず初めに、自分の意見を明確に表す一文を必ず書きます。

また、全体の構成を示すために、理由をダイジェスト的に述べる

手法もありますが、「~という人もいますが、私は・・・」と反対の

立場に触れたり、「理由は3つあります」と全体の構成をシンプルに

示したりすることもできます。

あくまで、Introductionなので、長々と書かないこと、時間を

かけすぎないことに留意します

エッセイの冒頭部分次第で、読み手は内容を見ずに読む気を失うか、

読み進めるかを決めるのです。

 

　②   Body （本論）

 

Body （本論）では、Introduction (序論）　でのエッセイの

アウトラインであるthesis statement を理由と具体的な例を挙げながら、

確固たるものにしていきます。

1段落に１つずつ理由を展開させていきますが、ディスコース・マーカー

を用いてわかりやすく構成を示すことがポイントです。

また、１つ１つの文が論理的につながっているか、書いているうちにトピック

や自分で挙げた理由からそれていないかについてもよく確認しましょう。

 

③　Conclusion (結論）

Conclusion (結論）はエッセイの最後の文になります。

introduction (序論）で書いたエッセイのアウトラインthesis statementと、

それを具体的に証明したbody (本論）をベースに、まとめたものを、簡潔に書く最終文となります。

間違いを避けるためにほぼ同じ語句を用いてもよいですが、少し言い換えて

多様な表現を用いることを目指すとよいでしょう。

 

 

 

|　TOEFL ライティング　Independent     概要と高評価の取り方

▮　Independent Task　の概要と高評価の取り方

TOEFL　ライティング　Question 2 は、提示されたトピックに対し、

自分の意見や考えを解答する独立問題形式　Independent Taskです。　

エッセイ（解答文）には「良い構成」が求められ、まとまりと一貫性を維持した

論理展開が重要視されます。

また、「表現力」の豊かさ」も採点基準の1つですので、豊富な語彙、表現

を使用することも必要です。

▮　問題形式

TOEFL　ライティング　Question 2 で出題されるトピックは、主として以下の

2つのパターンに分けられます。

agree / disagree 型　：　ある事柄や意見に対して、「賛成」か「反対」かを問うもの。

Do you agree or disagree with the following　statement? 　　Teachers are responsible for motivating students to　learn. 　　Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.

prefer型：　挙げられている2つの事柄や意見のうち、どちらを好むかを問うもの。

Some people like to spend their leisure time doing activities with a lot of people. Others prefer to spend their leisure in quiet ways by themselves or with one other person. Which do you prefer? 　Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. 

解答時間は30分、適切とされる解答の語数は300語以上です。　

トピックと残り時間は、使用後数はコンピューター画面に表示され続けます。

Question 1と同様、アイディアを書き留めるために、鉛筆とメモ用紙を

使用することができます。

▮　Independent Taskの評価基準

解答は最低2名の採点者が、以下の3つの観点から、0～5点で段階的に採点します。

1. 課題の指示に対して的確に答えているか。
2. 構成・展開に一貫性・まとまりがあるか。
3. 文法・語彙に誤りがなく、表現は多様であるか。

|　TOEFL ライティング　Integrated   時間節約　テンプレート

TOEFLというテストを最も難易度の高い英語力判定テストとしていえる

要因の大きな一つが、このライティングセクションにあるIntegrated Taskです。

Integrated Taskはその名の通り複合問題であり、そこには非常に高度な速読力、

英語のレクチャーの1回で聴き取るリスニング力を必要とします。

リスニングの後、150～225語のエッセイを20分で書くため、相当慣れていない受験者は、

時間との戦いになります。

そこで、エッセイの構成時間を節約するために、テンプレートを使った解答法を

練習しておくことをお勧めします。　

以下の4パラグラフ構成　でリスニングとリーディングの主張と3つの理由が

自然にまとめられるようになっています。

The article and the professor are both talking about ( A＆B ). 　　　However, the professor claims that (　B　), and he refutes the main points made in the reading passage.  The three points of view between the two parties are presented as follows.

First of all, the professor argues that (　B　). This idea questions the article’s point of view that (　A　). In addition, she states that (　B　). She also mentions that (　B　).

Second, the professor takes the position that (　B　). This standpoint is also opposed to the claim in the passage that (　A　). In his opinion, he tells that (　B　). Furthermore, he notes that (　B　).

Finally, the speaker  goes further to make a point that (　B　). This viewpoint also refutes the writer’s view that (　A　). In the lecture, she says (　B　). According to the lecture, the professor points out that (　B　). Therefore, the main points made by the professor cast doubt on the main points made in the reading passage.

( A )は、　レクチャーの主張　　　（ B )は、リーデングパッセージの主張

|　TOEFL ライティング　Integrated   正しい Trasitions (転換語）の使い方

ETSのオフィシャルサイトでは、最高得点（５）の採点基準(TASK DESCRIPTION)として以下のように紹介しています

A response at this level successfully selects the important information from the　lecture and coherently and accurately presents this information in relation to the relevant information presented in the reading. The response is well organized, and occasional language errors that are present do not result in inaccurate or imprecise presentation of content or connections.

簡潔にまとめると、下記の四つが判断基準となります。

1. リスニングから重要な情報を入れ込むことができているのか。

2. リスニングにあるポイントとリーディングのポイントをうまく繋げているのか？

3. エッセイの全体構成と一貫性。

4. 文法、語彙やライティングの基本ルール（正しいスペリング、文法、大文字・小文字等）の運用を含め、英語の表現力があるかどうか。

上記採点基準　2、３　では、リスニングとリーディングのポイントを繋ぐ為の、

Transitions（転換語）が重要になります。　   

Transitionsの役割（対比、結果、追加、順序、例証）を誤るとエッセイの一貫性

がなくなり、減点対象になりますので、転換語の正しい使い方を覚えてください。

Integrated ライティングでは、リスニング　パッセージの内容をレクチャーで否定する

形が多いので、　対比で使うTransitionsを上手に使うことが求められます。

それでは、Transitionsの使い方を以下の例文から解説してきます。

例文１では、対比ではなく、追加のTsansitionsが使われており、これでは、レクチャーがパッセージの主張に異議を唱えているエッセイになっていません。

例文 1

The reading argues that zoos are a bad investment.

In addition, the lecturer claims that zoos have value.

First, the reading says that zoos are a waste of money. They use money that could help poor neighborhoods.

Moreover, the lecturer argues against this.

Next, the reading claims that zoos are not good for animals. The reading uses many clear examples, such as small cages.

Also, the professor in the lecture argues that the reading is totally wrong about that.

Finally, the reading contends that zoos take up valuable land.

In addition, the lecturer gets really angry about that.

In sum, the reading argues that zoos are a waste of money.

In conclusion, the lecturer disagrees. 

一方、例文２では、対比の適切なTransitionが使われており、レクチャーがパッセージの主張を否定していることが明確に伝わっています。

例文２

The reading argues that zoos are a bad investment.

However, the lecturer claims that zoos have value

First, the reading says that zoos are a waste of money. They use money that could help poor neighborhoods.

Conversely, the lecture argues against this.

Next, the reading claims that zoos are not good for animals. The reading uses many clear examples, such as small cages.

On the contrary, the professor in the lecture argues that the reading is totally wrong about that.

Finally, the reading contends that zoos take up valuable land.

In contrast, the lecturer gets really angry about that.

In sum, the reading argues that zoos are a waste of money.

Countering that, the lecturer disagrees. 

|　TOEFL ライティング　Integrated   パッセージ・レクチャー　関連付け(2)

Integrated Writingの問題は、「レクチャーの内容を要約することと、それがどのように

リーディングの内容と関連しているかを述べること」です。

あくまでもレクチャーで主張されていたポイントを中心にエッセイを展開することが重要です。

そしてそれらがどのようにリーディング（パッセージ）と矛盾するかを

示すことができれば、問題が要求している点について明確に答えることができ高評価となります。

それでは、前回とは問題を変えた解答例の中でどのようにレクチャーの要点とリーディングの要点からエッセイを構成しているかを色分けして検証してみます。　

レクチャー及びリーディングの要点を引用する際は、そのまま写すのではなく、パラフレーズすることも高評価につながりますので、注意して解答例をご覧ください。

|　リーディング　（パッセージ）

（青）　：　解答例の構成に使われている要点。

Jane Austen (1775-1817) is one of the most famous of all English novelists, and today her novels are more popular than ever, with several recently adapted as Hollywood movies. But we do not have many records of what she looked like. For a long time, the only accepted image of Austen was an amateur sketch of an adult Austen made by her sister Cassandra. However, recently a profession­ally painted, full-length portrait of a teenage girl owned by a member of the Austen family has come up for sale. Although the professional painting is not titled Jane Austen, there are good reasons to believe she is the subject.

First, in 1882, several decades after Austen’s death, Austen’s family gave permission to use the portrait as an illustration in an edition of her letters. Austen’s family clearly recognized it as a portrait of the author. So, for over a century now, the Austen family itself has endorsed the claim that the girl in the portrait is Jane Austen.

Second, the face in the portrait clearly resembles the one in Cassandra’s sketch, which we know depicts Austen. Though somewhat amateurish, the sketch communicates definite details about Austen’s face. Even though the Cassandra sketch is of an adult Jane Austen, the features are still similar to those of the teen­age girl in the painting. The eyebrows, nose, mouth, and overall shape of the face are very much like those in the full-length portrait.

Third, although the painting is unsigned and undated, there is evidence that it was painted when Austen was a teenager. The style links it to Ozias Humphrey, a society portrait painter who was the kind of professional the wealthy Austen fam­ily would hire. Humphrey was active in the late 1780s and early 1790s, exactly the period when Jane Austen was the age of the girl in the painting. 

|　リスニング　レクチャー

レクチャー　（スクリプト）

（赤）　：　 解答例の構成に使われている要点。

The evidence linking this portrait to Jane Austen is not at all convincing. Sure, the paint­ing has long been somewhat loosely connected to Austen’s extended family and their descendants, but this hardly proves it’s a portrait of Jane Austen as a teenager. The read­ing’s arguments that the portrait is of Austen are questionable at best.

First, when the portrait was authorized for use in the 1882 publication of her letters, Jane Austen had been dead for almost 70 years. So the family members who asserted that the painting was Jane had never actually seen her themselves. They couldn’t have known for certain if the portrait was of Austen or not.

Second, the portrait could very well be that of a relative of Austen’s, a fact that would explain the resemblance between its subject and that of Cassandra’s sketch. The extended Austen family was very large, and many of Jane Austen’s female cousins were teenagers in the relevant period, or had children who were teenagers. And some of these teenage girls could have resembled Jane Austen. In fact, many experts believe that the true subject of the portrait was one of those relatives, Mary Ann Campion, who was a distant niece of Austen’s.

Third, the painting has been attributed to Humphrey only because of the style, but other evidence points to a later date. A stamp on the back of the picture indicates that the blank canvas, you know, the actual piece of cloth on which the picture was painted, was sold by a man named William Legg. Records show that William Legg did not sell can­vasses in London when Jane Austen was a teenager. He only started selling canvasses when she was 27 years old. So, it looks like the canvas was used for the painting at a time when Austen was clearly older than the girl in the portrait.

▮　Question

Summarize the points made in the lecture, being sure to explain how they respond to the specific arguments made in the reading passage.

|　解答例

（青）：　リーディングの要点。

（赤）：　レクチャーの要点。

★　レクチャーの要点が中心に構成されているのがわかります

The lecture casts doubt and questions the evidence presented in the reading passage regarding a painting allegedly of Jane Austen.

First, about the family’s recognition of the painting as that of Jane’s as a teenager. The lec­turer points out that in 1882, when the Austen family authorized the use of the painting as a portrait of Jane in the publication of her let­ters, Jane had been dead for 70 years. Hence, the family members who claimed this portrait to be of Jane’s probably have never seen her, and don’t necessarily know how she looked.

While the reading passage presents the resemblance of the face features to prove that the teenager in the portrait is indeed Jane, the lecturer sees otherwise: the teenager in the portrait could have been any cousin or niece of Jane. The lecturer claims that there was much to the date of the portrait based on the stamp on the canvas itself. According to the stamp it was sold by William Legg, who didn’t sell canvas in London when Jane was a teenager. He only began selling canvas in London when Jane was 27 years old.

|　TOEFL ライティング　Integrated   パッセージ・レクチャー　関連付け

Integrated Writingの問題は、「レクチャーの内容を要約することと、それがどのように

リーディングの内容と関連しているかを述べること」です。

あくまでもレクチャーで主張されていたポイントを中心にエッセイを展開することが重要です。

そしてそれらがどのようにリーディング（パッセージ）と矛盾するかを

示すことができれば、問題が要求している点について明確に答えることができ高評価となります。

それでは、実際の解答例の中でどのようにレクチャーの要点とリーディングの要点からエッセイを構成しているかを色分けして検証してみます。　

レクチャー及びリーディングの要点を引用する際は、そのまま写すのではなく、パラフレーズすることも高評価につながりますので、注意して解答例をご覧ください。

|　リーディング　（パッセージ）

（青）　：　解答例の構成に使われている要点。

The sea otter is a small mammal that lives in waters along the western coast of North America from California to Alaska. When some sea otter populations off the Alaskan coast started rapidly declining a few years ago, it caused much concern because sea otters play an important ecological role in the coastal ecosystem. Experts started investigating the cause of the decline and quickly realized that there were two possible explanations: environmental pollution or attacks by pred­ators. Initially, the pollution hypothesis seemed the more likely of the two.

The first reason why pollution seemed the more likely cause was that there were known sources of it along the Alaskan coast, such as oil rigs and other sources of industrial chemical pollution. Water samples from the area revealed increased levels of chemicals that could decrease the otters’ resistance to life ­threatening infections and thus could indirectly cause their deaths.

Second, other sea mammals such as seals and sea lions along the Alaskan coast were also declining, indicating that whatever had endangered the otters was affecting other sea mammals as well. This fact again pointed to environmental pol­lution, since it usually affects the entire ecosystem rather than a single species. Only widely occurring predators, such as the orca (a large predatory whale), could have the same effect, but orcas prefer to hunt much larger prey, such as other whales.

Third, scientists believed that the pollution hypothesis could also explain the uneven pattern of otter decline: at some Alaskan locations the otter populations declined greatly, while at others they remained stable. Some experts explained these observations by suggesting that ocean currents or other environmental fac­tors may have created uneven concentrations of pollutants along the coast. 

|　リスニング　レクチャー

レクチャー　（スクリプト）

（赤）　：　 解答例の構成に使われている要点。

Well, ongoing investigations have revealed that predation is the most likely cause of sea otter decline after all.

First, the pollution theory is weakened by the fact no one can really find any dead sea otters washing up on Alaskan beaches. That’s not what you would expect if infections caused by pollution started killing a lot of otters. On the other hand, the fact that it’s so hard to find dead otters is consistent with the predator hypothesis: if an otter is killed by a predator, it’s eaten immediately so it can’t wash up on shore.

Second, although areas may prefer to hunt whales, whales have essentially disappeared from the area because of human hunters. That means that areas have had to change their diet to survive, and since only smaller sea mammals are now available, orcas have probably started hunting those. So it probably is the areas that are causing the decline of all the smaller sea mammals mentioned in the passage, the seals, the sea lions, and the sea otters.

And third, the uneven pattern of otter decline is better explained by the orca predation theory than by the pollution theory. What happens to otters seems to depend on whether the location where they live is accessible to areas or not. In those locations that areas can access easily, the number of sea otters has declined greatly. However, because areas are so large, they can’t access shallow or rocky locations. And shallow and rocky locations are precisely the types of locations where sea otter populations have not declined. 

▮　Question

Summarize the points made in the lecture, being sure to explain how they respond to the specific points made in the reading passage

|　解答例

（青）：　リーディングの要点。

（赤）：　レクチャーの要点。

★　レクチャーの要点が中心に構成されているのがわかります

The topic discussed here is the investiga­tion of the causes of the disappearance of the sea otter, which is a small mammal that lives in waters along the western coast of North America from California to Alaska. The woman in the lecture argues that the cause of their disappearance is the presence of the predators, especially areas, and not pollution as the reading says.

Firstly, she argues that one of the proofs of their being attacked by the predators is the fact that no one can find any dead sea otters. If the cause was the pollution, many dead sea otters would be found along the shores. In addition, a predator will immediately eat its prey so this is why no dead sea otters were found.

Secondly, the woman in the lecture argues there is another explanation than pollution why smaller sea mammals are all disappearing.She says that, since the whales tend to disap­pear because of the humans hunting them, the areas had to adapt their food habits to the sea conditions and as a result they have started eating the smaller sea animals available among them sea otters being included.

Thirdly, she argues that the areas can­not access the shallow locations. This is why there are some areas where the sea otters are numerous. It’s not because of uneven concen­trations of pollutants. 

|　TOEFL ライティング　Integrated   パッセージを述べるフレーズ

TOEFL integrated ライティングでは、Introductionの中で、リーディング

passageの論点を述べたうえでレクチャーの立場を明確にすることが大切です。

そこで今回は、パッセージの内容を伝えるときに使えるフォーマルなフレーズを学びます。

Introduction でパッセージの内容を述べる　使える表現

赤字で示した単語は、フォーマルな単語です。これらを用いて、読者や採点者に、アカデミックなエッセイだという「印象」を与えてください。

パッセージは、汚染がラッコの死の原因だったと述べている·示している·推測している·主張している。

The passage mentions that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage suggests that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage indicates  that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage assumes that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage investigates that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage claims that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage states that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage argues that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

パッセージは、汚染がラッコの死の原因だった証拠を扱っている。

The passage addresses the evidence that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

The passage deal with the evidence that pollution could cause the deaths of sea otters.

教授は、パッセージに述べられている意見を否定している・疑っている・反論している。

the professor disagrees with the idea mentioned in the passage. 

the professor casts doubt on the idea mentioned in the passage. 

the professor disputes the idea mentioned in the passage. 

the professor challenges  the idea mentioned in the passage. 

the professor denies  the idea mentioned in the passage. 

the professor refutes the idea mentioned in the passage. 

the professor describes the opposing view.